Evidence Centered Design: Kognito

ECD: Kognito Program

My exploration of the ECD model with the Kognito computer program using a new concept mapping program.

My TEL Toolkit

Article Review: Teachers Expectations Over the Long Term

Article Review – The Longitudinal Relations of Teacher Expectations to Achievement in the Early School Years

This article explored the research on the impact of teacher expectations in the early years as a predictor of later student achievement. Exploring reading and mathematics areas, the researchers reviewed data from nearly 1,000 students in first, third, and fifth grade. A link between a child’s gender and social skill perceptions by the teacher and expectations of performance rose, but there was no evidence of this impact accumulating. However, teacher expectations indicated a stronger relation to later achievement of high risk student populations.

Citation

Hinnant, J.B., O’Brien, M., & Ghazarian, S.R. (2009). The Longitudinal Relations of Teacher Expectations to Achievement in the Early School Years. Journal of Educational Psychology 101(3), 662-670.

Google Scholar Link:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2860190/

Summary

Purpose of the research

It is known that early education forms a foundation for later student achievement. However, there are little longitudinal studies on the long term impact that teacher expectations have on the academic career of students. The authors reviewed aspects which impact the studies of teacher expectations. First, self-fulfilling prophesy exists and indicates a small to moderate effects on students from teacher expectations. Next, in examining the impact of teacher expectations, one must look at the low/high teacher expectations and match this with a student’s achievement of standardized test to explore if there is a discrepancy or is there accuracy. The authors examined children’s early academic abilities and whether teacher expectations influenced a change in students’ performance on standardized test and later in the long-term span of their academic careers.

Note: This article continues an exploration of early article reviews by exploring the snowball effect and whether the impact of expectations dissipates over time or holds more relevancy with higher risk populations and/or new environments. In addition, it considers that oftentimes teacher expectations are accurate to students’ standardized performance with the exception of perceptual biases linked to social stereotypes or experiences with particular children including gender, ethnicity, race and socioeconomic level.

Research questions

The authors review the relationship between teacher’s expectations and students later academic achievement in consideration of children’s’ gender, ethnicity, family income, and child social skills. They hypothesize that there will be a correlation between academic performance (self-fulfilling prophesy) and teacher expectancy effects in at risk minority groups, those with poor social skills, and gender (reading for boys and math for girls).

Specifically, the authors posit, “that teachers will overestimate girls’ competence in reading and boys’ competence in math, underestimate the academic abilities of minority children and those from low income families, and overestimate the academic abilities of children they perceive as socially competent”. The researchers also test “the question of whether teacher expectations are more highly related to later child performance for vulnerable children”.

Methods

Tracking information from birth to fifth grade included six home visits, four parent-child laboratory visits and for some child care setting observations. Also reviewed were first, third and fifth grade classroom observations, cognitive skill lab assessments, and teacher questionnaires on students’ academic and social capacities, and the teacher’s education and experience levels.

Teachers completed the Social Skills Questionnaire from the Social Skills rating System (SSRS, Gresham % Elliott, 1990) with 38 items on students’ cooperation, assertion, responsibility and self-control. Teacher reports using the Academic Skills questionnaire on classroom performance was combined with standardized performance from the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery Revised (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989) in reading and math. A discrepancy score between a teacher’s report and the standardized test was calculated using six scores (a reading and math score for the three assessed years) to indicate under (negative) or over (positive) estimations and predict future academic achievement.

Subjects

Using a large national study database from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development of 1,364 families from 10 geographic locations followed from birth (1991) to fifth grade. School observations were conducted on 955 students following them from first to fifth grades. The students were less likely to be from a lower socioeconomic level or a member of a minority group (17%).

Results

Following preliminary examination of the data, two sets of hierarchical regression analyses were conducted. The following evidence emerged from this study:

• Teacher reading expectations matched to students’ test performance prior to first grade but this was so with math expectations.
• Socially competent children were viewed by teachers are being more academically skilled than scores indicated.
• Teachers tended to overestimate girls and underestimate boys in regards to reading abilities and their actual test scores.
• In 5^th grade, ethnicity emerged as relevant with minority children perceived as less competent at math than their test scores indicate.
• In 3^rd and 5^th grade, students reading performance was linked to demographics and to social competence (positive association with income and ethnicity) but not to earlier grades teacher expectations.
• 3^rd grade reading performance showed a significant 3-way interaction with teacher expectancy, gender and ethnicity.
• There was indication that the link between 1^st grade teacher expectations and 3^rd grade math performance depends on family income level - low/average incomes positively related to teacher expectations with performance.
• When teachers have a more positive view of students’ math abilities than their test scores indicate, they perform better (visa versa with negative perceptions and lower performance).
• These math expectations and future academic impact are small but long-lasting four years later.

Discussion

Implications

The first aspect is that it appears teachers’ expectations are mirrored by academic history records, with a few exceptions: gender and reading, socially competent and easier to manage children with reading and math. Second, reading expectations do not appear to accumulate, however they do for math. Next, when minority boys were underestimated they had the lowest performance and when overestimated the greatest gains. Finally, for children from low income families (some but less for average income) 1^st grade teacher expectations were related to 3^rd grade math performance with no link for high income families.

A challenge to the study is that the data was gathered from spring term versus the onset of fall thus new environment and the impact of initial expectations were not made. Additionally, overall classroom expectations from teachers were not noted, as my second article I reviewed indicated this may be even more relevant than individualized expectations. Also, the student population was overrepresented by white and high income demographics, and the students were compared to each other.

A strength of this study is the number of students, vast geographic ranges, comprehensive data sets and points in time over the long –term. Overall, some evidence emerged that early teacher expectancy with math may influence later academic performance, and some “child characteristics identity may moderate the relation between teacher expectations and academic achievement over time.”

Contribution and future research

Future research focus

More research on on the processes teachers use to convey different expectations to students are needed. Moreover, motivation (through interest and engagement) was also assessed, and social skills are a strong predictor of teacher expectations and impact some groups more than others. Other test results may not include this motivational subset, so this deems further exploration. Lastly, we need to assess at the onset of the year when expectations may have more influence due to a new environment and to see if they are accurate, persist over time, or adjust in their accuracy with more time to observe.

Implications for the technology-enhanced learning (TEL) environment
This is where computerized modules that guide learners at their pace have the opportunity to coach students based on actual performance and opportunities to review. These only depend on time and access to machines, and not to the amount of time and positive attention given by teachers. This can negate some of the overestimation occurring because of social competency because the computer isn’t biased by liking certain students.

Quest to Learn: An example of ECD

Where streams converge: Using evidence-centered design to assess Quest to Learn
by Shute and Torres

Kognito: A Virtual Reality Game

Kognito At Risk Online Training

Process Praise Video

The value of process praise video

Article Review: Teacher Expectations and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: 35 Years of Research

Title: Teacher Expectations and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

Citation:

Jussim, L. & Harber, K.D. (2005). Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: Known and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(2), 131-155.

Google Scholar Link: 
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kent_Harber2/publication/7869791_Teacher_Expectations_and_Self-Fulfilling_Prophecies_Knowns_and_Unknowns_Resolved_and_Unresolved_Controversies/links/09e4151394c0e6dc13000000.pdf

SUMMARY

Purpose of the research

In reviewing over 35 years of research, the authors posit that the impact of self-fulfilling prophecies are small and may dissipate, they have a more powerful effect on marginalized groups, and teacher expectation may predict student outcomes more. This was a comprehensive meta analysis that had not been done over 20 years or synthesized at this broaden level.

Research questions

Essentially reviewing the impact of social perception and how it creates social reality and if teacher expectations help or hinder social issues.

(1)  What did the early teacher expectation research show?

(2)  Do teacher expectations influence student intelligence?

(3)  How powerful is the typical self-fulfilling prophecy in the classroom?

(4)  How accurate is the typical teacher expectation?

(5)  Do negative teacher expectations harm students more than positive teacher expectations help students?

(6)  Do teacher expectations effects accumulate across different teachers and over time?

Methods

The authors recognize the disconnect that sometimes occur between expert thought, empirical data, and narrative reviews. Paying attention to this gap, they focus on effect sizes and empirical evidence more than on the authors’ conclusions and analysis interpretations by others in their meta-analysis.

Subjects

The authors reviewed and highlighted major works that were inclusive of several meta-analyses to explore each of the questions posited. This highlights some of the major topics discussed, although they never offered an exact number of how many articles reviewed.

In an attempt to refute his critics, Rosenthal became a pioneer in the meta-analysis process and with Rubin (1978) analyzed 345 experiments dividing them into 8 categories to demonstrate the existence of self-fulfilling prophecy. Rosenthal later updated his meta-analysis in 1994.

Raudenbush (1984) authored a meta-analysis of 18 studies which found a small mean effect size (d=.11) with IQ expectations studies. Raudenbush (1994) did a reanalysis and found 14 studies still showed no overall effects.

Results

While Rosenthal and Raudenbush concluded that teacher expectation influences IQ, Wineburg (1987) and Snow (1995) provide critiques of the research data. Some highlights of the authors’ analysis were:

• Self-fulfilling prophecies are real and the effects are typically small.
• The reason teacher expectations impacts exist are because of accuracy.
• There is not enough data to indicate whether positive or negative expectancies have the most effect.
• There is a pattern of dissipation in regards to the accumulation extent of expectancy power with the notable exception of social stigmatized groups.

DISCUSSION

Implications

The authors point out the flaws in the narrative built around self-fulfilling prophecy versus what the empirical data says. First, they point out the effect sizes have not been as dramatic as posited. Of significance to discuss in class is the accurate analysis of the often-mentioned Pygmalion in the Classroom study (1968) by Rosenthal and Jacobson, including what the results said (smaller effect size (.30) and correlation (r=.15) and how people interpreted pointed out. A secondary point is that 40 years of programs intending to increase IQ results in disadvantaged populations have failed to produce the IQ effect results people are inferring teacher expectations do with self-fulfilling prophesies.

The analysis points to varying results based on timing of the year for study intervention, age and level of school, newness of situations, the students’ perceptions of teachers differential treatment, tracking by ability level, and students identity with a stigmatized social group linked to social inequalities.

The authors spent time exploring the disconnect phenomena between social psychology (embracing) and educational psychology (skepticism) conclusions on self-fulfilling prophecy. This is also impacted by the absence of accuracy emphasis (is the teacher assessment in line with the student's performance level) within social psychology versus educational psychology and their differing methodologies.

Brophy’s (1983) narrative review stated that self-fulfilling prophecy had an effect on only 5-10% of students. Finally, with the accumulation effect, a broad review of four studies showed dissipating effects although their scope is limited by four studies.

Overall, this leads me to understand that there might be other factors at play with how teacher expectations impact students and their performance. Namely, if you are in a stigmatized group you feel this differently and if the information is introduced early on it has more impact in that it can influence other data the teacher is gathering (class performance, school records, test results, etc.). The studies pointed out that further exploration is needed on how teachers’ expectations are perceived as accurate based on what they are seeing as performance evidence (is it objective or subjective, is it accurate or not accurate, and does it stay stagnant or modify as more information is introduced). The newness of situations seems to have an impact so that initial tone is extremely vital. Furthermore, the other article I previously reviewed explored more deeply the impact of teacher universal expectations on a class versus individual student that might explain the differences of how students perform.

CONTRIBUTION AND FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research focus

The authors offer that research in “how teacher, school, and community…characteristics moderate self-fulfilling prophecies is needed” (p. 153). While there is evidence of the fleeting and minimal impact of self-fulfilling prophecies, there needs to be further research into the “evidence that, in certain contexts and among certain groups, they are indeed consistently powerful ad pervasive” (p.153).

Implications for the technology enhanced learning (TEL) environment

When we consider technology-enhanced learning, this can provide a vehicle of neutrality with teacher expectations and student performance. In addition, such tools like Canvas and measuring the learning analytics behind it can shed light onto student behaviors and curriculum design. We can use this to more accurately and objectively assess how students are performing and the impact of teacher expectations.

Creating Self-Regulated Learners

I attended (along with Ben) a fantastic MTI lunch yesterday. Dr. Ulbrich is doing great things with her work in revising Chemistry classes to support student learning more about their own learning. Attached are some snapshots of her presentation with examples of what she is structuring assignments to help students grow. Also included are pdfs of chapters she referred to that are available on the web.

Document on Learning to Learn
Creating Self-Regulated Learners book chapter 1


MASTER TEACHING INITIATIVE LUNCH AND LECTURE

TUESDAY, APRIL 5, 2016, 11:30-1 p.m. in LORY STUDENT CENTER, ROOM 386

TOPIC:

“SUPPORTING SELF-REGULATED LEARNING IN BEGINNING COLLEGE STUDENTS”

PRESENTER: Dr. Ingrid Laughman Ulbrich, Department of Chemistry

Brief Description: General chemistry 1 (CHEM 111) is a large undergraduate course, intended for science majors across the college.  It is a challenging course with significant freshman enrollment. Dr. Ulbrich will share with us her success at integrating activities designed to help students explicitly pay attention to their own learning process, and strategize on how to improve it. This approach inspired a revision in how exams were written, and exam averages were higher than in past semesters.  Additionally, this approach noticeably transformed the tenor of the course as students came to appreciate that they have the power and resources to create their own success.

Classrooms of the future!

21st Century Classroom: Design ideas with environmental, technological, and pedagogical considerations.

Useful Retrieval Information

Retrieval Practices

Teacher Expectations Article Review

Article Review - Teacher expectations and perceptions of student attributes: Is there a relationship?

Summary

This article continues the research foundation of over forty years of study on teacher expectations. This study narrows in beyond expectations for individual students to focus on expectations from teachers on a class level, thus providing insight into specific teacher factors that are helpful or not helpful for students’ cognitive growth. The research focused on how high expectation and low expectation teachers rated their students’ personal attributes and how this may relate to achievement.

Citation

Rubie-Davies, C.M. (2010). Teacher expectations and perceptions of student attributes: Is there a relationship?. British Journal of Educational Psychology, (80) 121-135.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christine_Rubie-Davies/publication/26685794_Teacher_expectations_and_perceptions_of_student_attributes_Is_there_a_relationship/links/0deec52a7533581599000000.pdf

Purpose of the research

This study’s purpose is to determine if teacher expectations on a class level have an impact on student achievement. Specifically, to explore levels of expectations, how students are perceived, and what the student response is with performance based on the class expectations from the teacher.

Research questions

The research study aimed to deepen the understanding of  HiEx and LoEx teachers’ characteristics by analyzing their perception of student attributes. Next they explored the positive or negative correlation between teacher expectation of a class and perceived  +/- learning environments.

       (1)    How do teachers’ expectations relate to perceptions of student attitudes to schooling;

       (2)    How do teacher perceptions of students’ attitudes to schooling relate to student achievement?

Methods

Primary school teachers (N=24) completed a questionnaire at the beginning of the academic year where they rated their expectation for what students would achieve in their class. The researchers compared expectations with students’ previous achievement levels and labeled 6 HiEx teachers with 144 students and 3 LoEx teachers with 76 students. Students were equally divided by high, average and low abilities. Teachers “also rated their students attitudes toward schoolwork , relationship with others, and home support,” using a scale created by St. George (1983) with some slight modifications for 15 characteristics rated on a Smartadata program (Davies, 2007).

Subjects

The subjects include 9 teachers and 220 primary students.

Results

Techniques used included “means and standard deviations for class level teacher expectations, student achievement,” and independent t-tests “were conducted to determine whether there were any significant differences between the HiEx and LoEx teachers’ ratings of the students’ characteristics.”

Teachers with high expectations for their students per class rated them highly, while low expectation teachers rated students below their achievement level yet perceived them positively. There was a statistically significant difference between HiEx and LoEx teachers for their ratings of:

• students’ perseverance (t ¼  2: 18, df ¼  218,p , : 03),
• independence (t ¼  2: 45, df ¼  218, p , : 02),
• reaction to new work (t ¼  3: 77, df ¼  218, p , : 001),
• interest in schoolwork (t ¼  2: 47, df ¼  218, p , : 01),
• cognitive engagement (t ¼  2: 93, df ¼  218, p , : 004),
• participation in class (t ¼  4: 59, df ¼  218, p , : 001),
• motivation (t ¼  2: 18, df ¼  218, p , : 03),
• confidence (t ¼  2: 60, df ¼  218, p , :01),
• self-esteem ( t ¼ 5:65,  df ¼ 218,  p , :001),
• classroom behavior ( t ¼ 2:24,  df ¼ 218,  p , :001),
• peer relationships ( t ¼ 4:98,  df ¼ 218,  p , :001),
• teacher relationships ( t ¼ 4:71,  df ¼ 218,  p , :001),
• parent attitudes to school ( t ¼ 3:52,  df ¼ 218,  p , :001),
• home environment ( t ¼ 6:60,  df ¼ 218,  p , :001), and
• homework completion ( t ¼ 3:24,  df ¼ 218,  p , :001).

HiEx teachers rated their students more highly on each scale item and had more positive perceptions of their students than did LoEx teachers.

Next using Pearson correlations the “relationship between teachers’ expectations and their perceptions of students’ attitudes and characteristics were calculated.” There was a statistically significant and positive correlation between HiEx teachers’ “perceptions of all student attitudes and their expectations (p , :001 for all variables).” The following items moderately correlated with teacher’s expectations of their students:

• independence,
• perseverance,
• reaction to new work,
• interest in schoolwork,
• participation in class,
• motivation,
• confidence,
• self-esteem,
• classroom behaviour,
• relationships with peers,
• relationships with the teacher,
• parent attitudes to school,
• home environment, and
• completion of homework.

The correlation “between teacher perceptions of student engagement and teachers’ expectations was strong,” as HiEx instructors had positive views that were reflected in positive expectations. LoEx had less expectations and the statistic correlation was small and negative with:

• interest in schoolwork,
• motivation,
• classroom behaviour,
• peer relationships,
• teacher relationships, and
• homework completion.

Interesting to note, that while “teachers’ expectations for their students were low their perceptions of some student attributes were not similarly low” as it appears they believed that “their students tried hard (interest in schoolwork and motivation), behaved in class (classroom behaviour), and related well to others (peer relationships and teacher relationships) even though their expectations for student achievement were low.”

Discussion and Implications

HiEx teachers seemed to perceived student attributes positively and thus with their achievement. For LoEx teachers the only statistically significant correlation was small and was between student achievement and teachers’ perceptions of student cognitive engagement. Hence, LoEx teachers seem to perceive that “student achievement was related to student engagement with the task.”

Overall, the perceptions of LoEx teachers did not match up to what the students could achieve.  Students in classes with HiEx teachers performed better with the positive environment, possibly because their teachers had high expectations and viewed their attributes positively so their learning was enhanced. For LoEx teachers, students might receive confusing messages with some positive and some negative messages associated with the low expectations despite ability level.

Contribution and future research

There has been a lot of research about how students’ performance in the class is affected by teachers’ individual expectations. Years ago folks hypothesized that teachers’ expectations of their whole class would have even more of an impact. Yet there has not been as much research done in class expectations, with a majority coming in the last decade.

With additional research on class expectations combined with deepening the understanding of individual expectations, we will be able to understand more how teachers can potential positively or negatively impact their students’ academic performance based on their beliefs of their attributes, where they set the bar for individual/group levels, and the biases and discriminating behaviors they show in the classrooms. The self-fulfilling prophesy for classes may hold even more impact than individual expectations.

Implications for the technology-enhanced learning (TEL) environment
The “Smartadata” program, and other similar programs to capture teacher perceptions, will continue to be helpful in research studies. There is also incredible promise to build simulated learning programs where teachers learn about biases, self-fulfilling prophesy, discriminating behavior, and impact of expectations on student attributes and performance. Very similar to the program Dr. Folkestad built!